Proceedings of the FAO Rice Conference (2024)

The sustainable development of rice-based production systems in Europe

A. Ferrero ^a and N.V.Nguyen^b
a Department of Agronomy, Sylvicultureand Land Management, University of Turin, Italy ^b ExecutiveSecretary, International Rice Commission, FAO, Rome, Italy

INTRODUCTION

Rice is not a major food crop in Europe; nevertheless, riceconsumption slowly but steadily increased from 1992 to 2001. The total quantityof rice consumed as food in Europe rose from about 4.15 million tonnes of paddyequivalent in 1992 to about 4.77 million tonnes in 2001. The quantity of riceconsumed in the Russian Federation in 2001 was 0.96 million tonnes, followed bySpain (0.52 million), Italy (0.48 million), Germany (0.46 million), France (0.44million) and Portugal (0.27 million) (FAO, 2003).

Rice was introduced into Europe during the fifteenth centuryand - despite the low rate of rice consumption and a number of unfavourableeconomic and social factors - production continued. Given the relatively highproduction costs in Europe, it is hard to compete with imported rice. Inaddition, the population expresses increasing concern about the possiblenegative effects of rice production on the environment and onbiodiversity.

However, the existing rice-based production systems present anumber of opportunities for sustainable development. This paper provides a briefdescription of the rice production systems in Europe and discusses the agronomicconstraints of and opportunities for the sustainable development of rice-basedsystems.

THE EVOLUTION OF RICE PRODUCTION

From 1992 to 2002, rice harvested area in Western Europeincreased slightly from 350 000 ha in 1992 to about 420 000 ha in 1996, afterwhich it decreased slightly in 1998 and then remained unchanged at about 400 000ha until 2002 (Figure 1). Within Europe, the changes in the harvested area werepronounced in Greece and Spain. Rice harvested area in Greece increased rapidlybetween 1992 and 1997 and then experienced a rapid decline; in Spain, on theother hand, it decreased (from 1992 to 1995), increased in 1996 and thenremained unchanged.

Rice harvested area in Eastern Europe declined rapidly fromabout 330 000 ha in 1992 to about 200 000 ha in 1996 and then remained stablefor the rest of the period from 1992 to 2002 (Figure 1).

TABLE 1
Rice harvested area, yield and production inEurope, 2002

Source: FAO, 2003.

Table 1 shows the rice harvested area, yield and production inselected countries in Europe in 2002, when Western Europe (WE) produced 2.60million and Eastern Europe (EE) only 0.59 million tonnes. However, the three toprice producers were Italy (WE), Spain (WE) and the Russian Federation (EE).Together, they contributed about 83 percent of the total rice production inEurope in 2002.

The data in Table 1 show that, in general, rice yields inWestern Europe were much higher than in Eastern Europe. Within Western Europe,rice yield was highest in Greece and Spain. In Eastern Europe, yield was highestin Macedonia, which may be because of the more favourable climate. The data inFigure 2 show the evolution of rice yields in the two regions of Europe between1992 and 2002. Rice yield in Western Europe increased steadily from 6 tonnes/haat the beginning of the period to about 6.5 tonnes/ha at the end of the period.In Eastern Europe, rice yield remained stagnant at around 3 tonnes/ha from 1992to 1999, finally increasing to about 3.5 tonnes/ha in 2000.

FIGURE 1
Evolution of rice harvested area in Europe,1992-2002

Source: FAO, 2003.

FIGURE 2
Evolution of rice yield in Europe,1992-2002

Source: FAO, 2003.

RICE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN EUROPE

According to the FAO classification (FAO, 1996), the primaryclimate in Western Europe is subtropical with a dry summer (Mediterraneanclimate), while the primary climate of rice production in most of Eastern Europeis temperate continental. In most of Western Europe, the main rainfall occursduring the first stages of growth (April-June) and during the harvest period.Average temperatures range from 10° to 12°C during rice germinationand from 20° to 25°C during crop flowering. In most of Eastern Europe,the rice-growing season is much shorter than in Western Europe, due to the lowtemperature regimes. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by warm, dry,clear days and a long growing season. This climate is favourable for highphotosynthetic rates and high rice yields, while its low relative humiditythroughout the growing season reduces the development, severity and importanceof rice diseases.

About 80 percent of the rice area is cultivated withjaponica varieties. The remainder is cultivated with indicavarieties (mainly "Thaibonnet" and "Gladio"). Rice is planted from mid-Aprilto the end of May and harvested from mid-September to the end of October. Riceis usually grown on fine-textured, poorly drained soils with impervious hardpansor claypans. These soils are primarily in three textural classes: clay, claywith silt, and loam with clay and silt (each ranging from 8 to 55 percent clay).A few of the soils are loam in the surface horizon, but are underlain withhardpans. The pH is between 4 and 8, with organic matter between 0.5 and 10percent (this last value only on a limited surface area). These soils are wellsuited for rice production. The low water permeability enhances water-useefficiency. In some regions (the Camargue in France, Ebro Delta in Spain etc.),soils are saline or very saline. Most of the irrigation water for European ricecomes from rivers (Po in Italy, Ebro in Spain, Rhone in France, Tejo in Portugaletc.) and lakes. It is estimated that less than 5 percent of rice irrigationwater is pumped from wells (areas where surface water is not available or wheresupplement water is required). The quality of the surface water and mostgroundwater is excellent for rice irrigation.

In all European countries, rice is cultivated with permanentflooding. Seed beds are commonly prepared by ploughing in autumn right after theharvest of the previous rice crop or in spring of the following year at a depthof 20 cm to incorporate the residues from the previous crop into the soil. Thesoil is sometimes prepared by adopting minimum tillage practices to favour weedgermination in order to control them better. Precision land grading, obtainedwith laser-directed equipment, is an agronomic practice that has greatlycontributed to better water management, and consequently to increased crop-standestablishment and improved weed control. Since the beginning of the 1960s, ricehas been seeded mechanically.

In general, rice seeds are mechanically broadcasted in floodedfields. However, in about 40 000 ha, mostly in Italy, seeds are drilled to drysoil in rows. In wet-seeded rice systems, soil is dried for short periods oftime after the emergence of rice seedlings to promote rice rooting and tofacilitate weed control treatments. However, the rice that was planted in drysoil is generally managed as a dry crop until it reaches the 3 - to 4-leafstage. After this period, the rice is flooded continually, as in theconventional system. In these conditions, rice has no competitive growthadvantage over weeds, which can compete with the crop from the beginning ofstand establishment.

The conventional irrigation system for rice production isknown as a "flow-through" system. Water is usually supplied and regulatedthrough a series of floodgates from the top-most to the bottom-most basin.Throughout the rice cultivation period, water is commonly kept at a depth of 4to 8 cm, and drained away 2 to 3 times during the season to improve croprooting, reduce algae growth and allow application of herbicides. Rice fieldsare commonly drained towards the end of August to allow harvesting.

Fertilization of the soil aims principally to restore the mainplant nutrients removed by crops. Under flood conditions, nitrogen is primarilyabsorbed in its ammonium form. This nutrient is commonly supplied at a rate of80 to 120 kg/ha (50 percent in pre-planting and 50 percent in post-planting),using urea or other ammonium-based fertilizers. Phosphorous and potassium aresupplied in the pre-planting stage at rates of 50 to 70 and 100 to 150 kg/ha,respectively.

THE EUROPEAN RICE MARKET

The European rice market consists of long-grain indicarice and round- to medium-grain japonica rice. While Europeans havetraditionally consumed mostly japonica rice, the consumption of indicarice has been increasing in recent years. Demand in north European countriesis almost entirely for indica type grains. Consumption of indicarice has surpassed that of japonica rice since 1999/2000.

European rice consumption is divided between human consumption(85 percent), animal feed (7 percent), industry (3 percent), seeds (3 percent)and loss (5 percent). Human consumption has increased, while other uses arestable or decreasing (industry) (CEC, 2002). European Union (EU) consumption ofmilled rice equivalent (industrial uses included) reached 1.8 million tonnes forthe 2000/01 marketing year (CEC, 2002). The trend in consumption of milled riceequivalent is up and reached about 5 kg per caput in 2002.

Rice produced in southern Europe is processed by the localfood industry in response to the demand of Mediterranean consumers and thedemand for export to northern Europe. In addition to imports from southernEurope, the food-processing industry in the north imports indica huskedrice from the United States of America, Thailand, India and Pakistan. Importshave increased since 1994/95 as a consequence of the Uruguay Round, thesubsequent reduction of the Basmati rice tariff and the implementation ofpreferential regimes. The quantity of imports from third countries, expressed inmilled equivalent, rose by 30 percent from 1995 to 2000. Over the same period,exports fell by 11 percent. Since then, however, total exports have stabilized,and food aid operations have at least partially replaced commercial exports(CEC, 2002). However, according to data collected between 1997/98 and 1999/2000,internal trade quantities were twice those of external trade. Italy is the mainprovider (about 300 000 tonnes of milled rice equivalent), followed by Spain(about 150 000 tonnes of milled rice equivalent).

Market liberalization for rice will be applied starting in2009. Tariff reductions will be phased in with a 20 percent cut in 2006, 50percent in 2007 and 80 percent in 2008. In the meantime, a duty-free quota,based on previous exports to the EU, has been established, with an increase of15 percent each year until 2009, when all tariffs and quotas will be removed.This liberalization policy was agreed upon after the introduction of theEuropean Commission agreement of February 2001. The agreement grants duty-freeaccess to the EU market for imports from least developed countries (LDCs) foreverything but arms (EBA).

On 26 June 2003, EU agriculture ministers agreed onfundamental reforms to Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), a break in the linkbetween subsidy and production and an allowance of preparation for fullimplementation of EBA from 2009. The primary aspects of CAP reform concerningrice aim to reduce the intervention price by 50 percent, limiting the amount to75 000 tonnes per year. These reductions are compensated for by a subsidydevoted in part to environmental protection.

RICE PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS

The most significant constraints to rice production inMediterranean climate areas include: low temperature, water scarcity, bioticstresses, unsatisfactory grain quality, high production costs and thepopulation's concern about the harmful effects of rice production on theenvironment.

Low temperature

As rice plants originate from subtropical and tropical zones,they are easily damaged by low temperatures at any growth stage from germinationto ripening (Ferrero and Tabacchi, 2002). Several experiments point out that apotential yield of 10 tonnes/ha requires a density of at least 250 seedlings perm². The cool weather and strong winds during stand establishment inMediterranean climate areas may cause partial stand loss and seedling drift,which lead to poor crop establishment. In many temperate areas, the emergencerate quite often does not exceed 30 to 40 percent of the planted seeds.Therefore, to achieve an acceptable crop stand, rice growers usually use about200 kg/ha of seed.

This low rate of crop emergence is due primarily to the effectof anaerobic conditions on germination occurring under low temperatures. Toavoid low temperatures during crop establishment stage, some growers end up withdelays in crop planting. However, a delay in crop establishment leads to theoccurrence of reproductive stages of the crop during periods of low temperaturesduring the autumn that causes the death of pollen cells at meiosis stage andsubsequent grain sterility. Damage to rice yield caused by spikelet sterilitycould be one of the most severe in years.

Poor crop establishment under European conditions could beovercome by developing new high-yielding varieties with good tolerance to lowtemperatures during germination, better land levelling and watermanagement.

Water scarcity

Water is becoming increasingly scarce in many regions of theworld. Between 1700 and 2000, total worldwide water withdrawal increased morethan 35 times the rate of population increase. Governments will be compelled toplace severe limitations on the use of water resources, particularly inagriculture. Agriculture is by far the biggest consumer of water. Waterconsumption in agriculture represents about 40 percent of the total consumptionin Europe, 50 percent in North and Central America and 85 percent in Asia. Inthe short term, the conflicting demand for water for use in industrialactivities, sanitation and as safe drinking water can be expected toincrease.

Many water problems are related to its uneven distribution.Other problems include pesticide pollution, soil erosion and deforestation,waterlogging in heavy soils, and increasing irrigation costs. All theseconstraints are forcing agronomists to develop management strategies to reducewater consumption and increase the efficiency of irrigation systems. As aresult, agronomists are continually creating strategies that increase the riceyield per unit of water input. According to the estimates of the World ResourcesInstitute, 15 percent of the water losses due to evaporation, leaching or anyother inefficiency can be saved through more sensible use. Water problems canalso be tackled by providing new rice varieties which are more suitable to thevarious conditions of water management.

Rice is more water-consuming than many other crops: incontinuous flooding cultivation it consumes about six times the water requiredby wheat. New varieties suitable for reduced water use are needed in irrigatedsystems. The availability of short-cycle and high-yielding rice couldsuccessfully lower the amount of irrigation water used in continuously floodedcultivation. A more consistent reduction in water consumption could be achievedby developing profitable varieties suitable for discontinuous irrigation in allclimate conditions. These conditions of water management will also contribute tothe alleviation of methane emissions from rice. Non-flooded conditions, however,can lead to increased competition from weeds and increased soil salinity. Theconstraints on rice yield caused by weed growth and soil salinity must also beaddressed as new varieties are developed.

Biotic stresses

According to Oerke et al. (1994), rice losses caused bydisease, pests and weeds, despite current crop protection, account for about 50percent of the crop potential. The numerous experiments conducted each year inEuropean rice paddies reveal that the failure to control weeds may potentiallyresult in the complete loss of the rice yield. The main noxious rice organismsare:

• blast(Pyricularia oyzae) and stem rot (Rhizoctonia oryza-sativae)(diseases);

• rice leafminer (Hydrelliagriseaola) and tadpole shrimp (Criops longicaudatus) (animal pests);and

• Echinochloa spp.,Bolboschoenus maritimus, Schoenoplectus mucronatus, Heteranthera spp.,Alisma plantago-aquatica and weedy rice forms (weeds).

All these species are usually controlled with pesticides. Theuse of these products may, however, result in the appearance of resistantspecies, cause environmental pollution and risk disrupting the precariousbalance of the natural enemies to pests (Ferrero et al., 2001; Ferrero,Tabacchi and Vidotto, 2002).

Weed resistance to herbicides has been reported in Italy,Spain, France and Greece. For example, a few years after the introduction ofsulfonylurea herbicides, some species began to develop resistance toacetolactate synthase inhibitors. This phenomenon was first noticed in 1995 inA. plantago aquatica and S. mucronatus plants, and wascontinuously treated for at least 3 years. The studies of Sattin et al.(1999) on S. mucronatus have shown that there is a cross-resistanceamong several sulfonylureas (azimsulfuron, bensulfuron-methyl, cynosulfuron andethoxysulfuron). Some of these resistant populations appeared to be sensitive totriazolopyrimidine herbicide (metosulam) at very high dosages (three times therecommended field dose). In Italy, weed resistance was reported on a ricesurface of more than 15 000 ha (Ferrero, Tabacchi and Vidotto, 2002).

A solution to these issues could be the development of ricecultivars that are resistant to pests and diseases, highly competitive againstweeds, with allelopathic traits, and tolerant to safe and wide spectrumherbicides (Ferrero et al., 2001). The use of these varieties combinedwith prophylactic measures could be a sound strategy for preventingdamage.

Grain quality

The quality of rice is not always easy to define as it dependson a combination of many subjective and objective factors, largely related tothe consumer and the intended end use of the grain. The demand by the consumerfor better quality has notably increased in the more economically developedcountries of Europe, giving rice producers the opportunity to increase the totaleconomic value of rice. Quality traits are also related to the taste of theseveral ethnic groups that make up European society.

Grain quality is influenced either by characteristics ofvariety or the crop production environment, harvesting, processing and millingtechniques. The main key components of rice quality are listed in Table 2. Someof these have also been defined by EC (European Community) regulations, whichhave recently come into force. The regulations relate to the common organizationof the rice market.

Many characteristics of grain quality are related to ricegrain shape. Since rice is consumed in grain form, the physical dimensions andweight are among the first criteria of rice quality that breeders consider whendeveloping new varieties. Grain type categories are based upon three physicaltraits: length, width and weight. According to EC regulations, only length andwidth and their ratio are formally considered. In the United States of America,however, grain weight is also taken into consideration (Table 3). Long slendergrains usually have greater breakage than short grains and consequently give alower milling yield.

The demand for long-grain varieties increased significantly asa result of food diversification and immigration (Tran, 1996). The EC furtherencouraged this demand through the allocation of subsidies to rice growersplanting indica type rice. Subsidies were originally given to compensatefor lower paddy and milling yields. The variety was often recorded in comparisonto japonica varieties. To meet this demand, many long-grain varietieshave been introduced in European countries. All these varieties are suited totemperate climatic conditions even if they are sometimes damaged by low nighttemperatures, occurring particularly during the flowering period (Ferrero,Tabacchi and Vidotto, 2002).

Grain shape is usually associated with specific cookingcharacteristics. Cooked long-grain rice is fluffy and firm, while medium andshort-grain rice is soft, moist and sticky in texture. The demand amongconsumers in Europe is higher for long-grain rice.

Grain fissuring is often due to overexposure of mature paddyto fluctuating temperature and moisture conditions. Cracks in the kernel are themost common cause of rice breakage during milling. Milling degree is influencedby grain hardness, size and shape, depth of surface ridges, bran thickness andmill efficiency. Wholegrain milling yield is the percentage of intact kernels tobroken kernels after milling and separation. Producers are paid less for brokenkernels than for whole.

Other specific quality traits are usually required for theproduction of processed rice, such as parboiled, quick cooking or precooked riceand rice flour. Rice parboiled for consumption as table rice is generally along-grain variety. Medium-grain rice is also parboiled, but it is more commonlyground into flour for use as an ingredient in food products (baked crackers,fried snacks).

TABLE 2
Main components of rice quality inEurope

TABLE 3
Range of grain size among typical European andUnited States long-, medium- and short-grain rice

Aroma is an important qualitative trait in specific varieties(Basmati type). Rice of this type is generally long-grain with high grainquality. It has an aroma often described as being "popcorn-like". The grainsbecome very long and thin and maintain a moderately firm texture after cooking.Demand for aromatic rice varieties has shown a significant increase since theearly 1990s, primarily in the United Kingdom and other European countries, butalso with a significant presence in Asiatic communities, (Faure and Mazaud,1996). It seems reasonable to expect afurther increase in aromatic riceconsumption throughout Europe in the years to come, because of the increase inpeople migrating from Far East countries and the growing interest in ethniccuisine. European consumption of Basmati rice is met entirely by imports fromIndia and Pakistan. For this reason, specific research programmes need to be setup in order to develop aromatic varieties suited to European climaticconditions.

European consumers are showing a growing interest in specialrice varieties, such as organic rice, waxy rice, Jasmine-type rice, wild riceand coloured (red, black) pericarp. At present, the demand for these productsonly accounts for a small share of the market, with the exception of organicrice. Organic rice has already found a place in market demand, and its demand isexpected to increase in the short to medium term. The yield obtained in organicrice systems is usually 25 to 30 percent lower than that obtained in ordinarycultivation, mainly because of the great difficulty in controlling weedinfestations.

Lodging resistance has been a key target trait for raisingyield potential. It is associated with traits such as plant height, stemstrength and thickness. Lodging-resistant rice cultivars usually show slow grainfilling when nitrogen is applied in large amounts. Many other problems, such asvariable milling yield, grain fissuring, grain shedding and non-contemporaneousmaturity, are sometimes closely linked to the genetic features of the ricevarieties, and are also related to other agronomic constraints, such as coldtemperature and lodging.

High production costs

The cost of rice production in Western Europe is generallymuch higher than in most Asian countries, with the exception of Japan. Theproduction cost per tonne of paddy rice in Europe is also higher than in theUnited States of America. The high production cost in Europe compared with theUnited States of America was largely due to the high expenses relating tofertilizer, seed, crop protection products, custom application, fuel and labour.The cost of production in the United States of America can range from US$104 to180 per tonne (Salassi, 2002), while in Italy the cost is about 200 per tonne(AIDAF-VC/BI, 2003).

Population's concern

The increase in number of mosquitoes and concern for thespread of malaria was a major reason for the restriction of rice production inthe past. There is increasing concern related to the negative effects of riceproduction on the environment (especially the emission of methane gases whichcause global warming) and the harmful effects of pesticide application onagricultural biodiversity in rice-based production systems. This new concern maylead to further restrictions in rice production in the continent. Integratedmanagement systems for efficiency in input utilization, including the use ofwater, need to be promoted in rice production in Europe. Also, the promotion ofa*gricultural biodiversity in rice-based production systems, such asrice-livestock and rice-other crops, is desirable.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE RICE PRODUCTION

One of the most effective means of addressing the issues inrice cultivation and raising the average yield at farm level is through researchand subsequent dissemination of the resulting data. Numerous research programmesat national or European level have been set up throughout Europe. They cover thewhole rice sector, from agronomic practices and breeding aspects to quality andmarket problems. Much of the research done in Europe has been fostered byMED-RICE (Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Rice in theMediterranean Areas).

Advances in rice research

Rice science has made considerable progress. In the area ofrice varietal improvement, recent advances in hybrid rice and new rice forAfrica (NERICA) are just two examples of the successful contributions of scienceto the development of rice. Scientists at IRRI have continued working toincrease the genetic yield potential of tropical rice through the concept of newplant types (NPT) with the stated goal of increasing the yield potential tobetween 12 and 15 tonnes/ha (Fisher, 1996; Peng, Khush and Cassman, 1994). Therecent success in rice genome mapping has further increased the potential forthe application of science. The increase in the yield potential of rice, thetolerance/resistance of rice to disease, weeds and pests, as well as toleranceto drought and salinity, could be achieved without harming the environment(Khush and Brar, 2002). However, these opportunities have also created newimperatives for biosafety, field-testing and capacity-building within nations toensure that the new innovations benefit local people and do not incur long-termcosts to the environment.

Most existing rice varieties have a potential yield thatexceeds actual yield. Furthermore, there is considerable variation in the actualyield levels achieved even under similar production systems. The gap reflectsnumerous deficiencies resulting primarily from inadequate crop, nutrient andwater management practices. During the 1990s, several systems were developed toallow a higher level of integrated crop management practices in rice production.The application of these rice integrated crop management (RICM) systems hasincreased rice yield and reduced cost and environmental degradation through moreefficient application of inputs. From 1973 to 1985, rice yield in Australiaremained stagnant at around 6 tonnes/ha. The RICM system, "RiceCheck", wasdeveloped and transferred in 1986 (Clampett, Williams and Lacy, 2001). With thewide adoption of RiceCheck, the Australian national yield increased rapidly andsteadily from about 6 tonnes/ha in 1987 to 9.65 tonnes/ha in 2000 (Figure 3).According to Australian rice scientists, half of the observed yield increasesince 1986 can be attributed to the adoption of new rice varieties and anotherhalf to the adoption of RiceCheck (Nguyen, 2002). The development anddissemination of RICM systems in Europe could help to lower production costs pertonne of paddy and to minimize environmental degradation.

FIGURE 3
Australian rice yield, 1970-2000

Source: FAO, 2001.

MED-RICE

Rice cultivation in Mediterranean climate areas has had toface strong competition in the world market. In the local market, demand forspeciality and quality rice has become more and more common. To tackle thesechallenges, institutions from Europe and the Near East have improved scientificcooperation while trying to capitalize on the wide range of experience andpotential in each country.

Relationships among rice scientists from many of the countrieswith a Mediterranean climate are strengthened through scientific gatheringssponsored by the Interregional Cooperative Research Network on Rice in theMediterranean Areas. The network, known as MED-RICE, began as a response to theneed for collaboration and coordination in research on rice in view of itsincreasing cultivation and consumption in Europe. Some of the issues dealt withinclude:

• the quality andcompetition of European rice;

• resistance to blast, watershortage, stem borers and disease;

• control of red rice;

• cataloguing of rice geneticresources in the region; and

• a data bank of knowledge onall aspects of rice cultivation for the purpose of improved management and riceyields.

These issues are all being addressed through cooperative research programmes between member institutions of the network. Sixteen countries participate in MED-RICE: Bulgaria, Egypt, France, Greece, Hungary, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Morocco, Portugal, Romania, the Russian Federation, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. MED-RICE activities include scientific meetings, cooperative research programmes and publications, ranging from reports and proceedings to a newsletter (Medoryzae). The network's Web site can be found at http://medrice.agraria.unito.it

CONCLUSIONS

Rice is not among the major food crops of Europe; however,rice consumption as food is slowly but steadily increasing. Since itsintroduction, rice production has remained in Europe, despite the low rate ofrice consumption and a number of unfavourable economic and social conditions.The cost of rice production in Europe remains relatively high, makingcompetition with imported rice difficult. In addition, concern over the negativeeffects of rice production on the environment and biodiversity has continued toincrease. However, the rice-based production systems in Europe have a number ofopportunities for sustainable development.

A sustainable increase in rice production in Europe and NorthAfrica requires strategies that must focus on the following:

• Collaborationamong rice research institutions towards the adoption of modern plant breedingtechnology to develop new generations of high-yielding varieties with bettergrain quality and with better resistance or tolerance to biotic and abioticstresses.

• Promotion and development ofrice integrated crop management (RICM) systems for improving productivity andreducing the production cost per unit of output.

• Promotion and adoption ofproduction technologies and systems that aid the conservation of biodiversityand the environment.

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